Evaluating Strengths and Weaknesses of Reason as a Way of Knowing Essay

This paper that I am writing on is a piece of paper; that is undeniable fact. Hundreds of years of development and definition also back up this statement as do any scientific experiments carried out upon it in an effort to prove that this piece of paper is indeed a piece of paper. Yet through reasoning the fact that this is a piece of paper can be disputed and even proved wrong. Reason seems like an excellent way to work out the world around us. It uses all of the facts available to come up with a suitable hypothesis which can be tested and either proved or disproved through experimentation. This is the foundation of science, which is what the majority of people would trust. So anything proved through scientific means is therefore and irrefutable fact. Of course, in every experiment write up there is an acknowledgement that the data collected might not be completely accurate or that the interpretation of results might be wayward but again this is perfectly reasonable. It is reasonabl e to assume that despite your best efforts you may have got the answer wrong and another answer, no matter how unlikely, may be correct. As well as reason being proved by scientific experiment it can also be proved by historical fact. For example, it is undisputable fact that on 30th May 1431 Joan of Arc was burned at the stake. That cannot be argued with, it was that date and will always be that date no matter what happens in the future and every history text or website would agree with that fact. So it is therefore illogical to start claiming that Joan of Arc died last week as historical facts, which are perfectly reasonable, tell us otherwise. However, does reason really help us in our quest for knowledge or is it a poor way of finding out about the world? Despite much scientific investigation and historical knowledge there are many questions in the world that are left unanswered and unexplained. These questions are sometimes fundamental to life itself. For example, how are we conscious beings that can interact with the world beyond purely animal instincts? This question could possibly be explained by the electrica l impulses in the brain that form our thoughts but how can we have developed into any kind society purely through electrical impulses? In this case, using reason to explain what is happening almost seems unreasonable as the potential answer seems not to be able to completely cover the question. After all, if it is only electrical impulses, then what need is there for a person to be able to be able to create a symphony with an orchestra? As well as reason not being able to answer some questions there are some problems with following logical arguments. Logical fallacies are the main example of this. This is where through looking at two or more facts a conclusion is drawn which is false. For example: Cake is food, food is tasty, and therefore cake is tasty. However, this is obviously not true as whilst some cake may be tasty, perhaps even the majority; this does not mean to say that all cake is tasty. After all a burnt cake is not that tasty! Also not only is the conclusion false the two facts through which the conclusion is derived can also be said to be false. After all, any cake that I bake should not be classed as food and not all food is tasty. This statement is far too general and is a large problem with logical fallacies as they generally come to a wrong conclusion, both through the ignorance of other factors as well as the fact that often the facts are not completely accurate in the first place. Lateral thinking is also something which at first seems illogical yet (often) in hindsight becomes logical. It is creative thinking which does not merely follow the most logical steps to reach an answer. For example a suggested solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict in the Middle East was to ship vast amounts of Marmite to the area. This seems utterly senseless, as surely holding talks and making agreements between the two sides would be the best steps forward. However, on examining the idea further it becomes logical, if creative! In the typical diet of people in the Middle Eastern area there is a lack of zinc due to the main diet of unleavened bread. This lack of zinc creates aggression. Marmite contains a lot of zinc and therefore could be used to solve the problem in the Middle East. Whilst this solution does not seem reasonable it would work and so shows that reason is not always the best policy. There is also a difference in opinion between what people may think is logical and illogical. Many people in the world take illogical decisions and believe illogical knowledge. Or they seem to do so. Religion is a major factor in many people’s lives and it affects many of the things that they think and do. Due to this people may make a decision that seems illogical to secular people which is perfectly logical to religious people. This brings up the question of; what is reason? After all if two different decisions about the same thing are made and are both reasonable to those people it begs the question of whether or not reason itself can be defined. Is reason just a matter of opinion or is there a yardstick by which all reasonable decisions can be made. If we look back at the British Empire one of the purposes of that was to; â€Å"Make the world England† rather then to respect what other cultures thought and did. In many small islands in the Far East a warrior culture was common and often tribes would fight each other for prestige rather then for anything else. However, to the British this seemed barbaric, yet without it the culture fell apart. For them it was reasonable for this to take place, the knowledge they had seemed to point to the fact that this was a good thing. But not for the British who had a very different opinion through the knowledge that they had acquired. To conclude reason as a way of knowing has both strengths and weaknesses. The weaknesses are that a difference of opinion means that people will reason differently too making it an irregular method of making decisions and acquiring knowledge. Reason may also not be the best policy as more creative solutions may be better which can be derived through latera l thinking. Also logical fallacies call into question the validity of reason as they produce false results through logical steps. As well as this we cannot answer some fundamental questions through reason. However, reason is often the best way that we can make decisions in the world. Scientific experiment and historical knowledge are two very good examples of how reason cannot be changed and is therefore very valuable as it allows us to have consistency with our knowledge. Of course religion means that some inconsistency comes into play with our knowledge but on the whole reason is often the best policy.

The Great Gatsby’s American Dream

The Great Gatsby's American Dream Corrupption â€Å"There are those, I know, who will reply that the liberation of humanity, the freedom of man and. mind, is nothing but a dream. They are right. It is. It is the American Dream. † (Archibald MacLeish). This quote talks about how the American Dream is only a dream. The American is a life of personal happiness and material comfort, and is traditionally sought by the individuals in the U. S. It is only a fantasy. Author F. Scott Fitzgerald shows a great example of the causes and affects the American Dream has on people during the 1920s in his novel, The Great Gatsby.Fitzgerald explains that the American Dream is unattainable through the characters and their actions and the symbolism throughout the novel. In the novel Fitzgerald indicates that the American Dream is unachievable through Gatsby’s unrealistic image of the dream. Gatsby has been in love with daisy for years and spent his life proving that he was worthy enough fo r her to leave her husband and take him back. Gatsby believed money could substitute for time: â€Å"Can’t repeat the past? [†¦]why of course you can[†¦] I’m going to fix everything just the way it was before[†¦]shell see†(Fitzgerald 117).Although Gatsby recreated his past environment with money, he could not recreate the past feelings that were destroyed by time. Gatsby’s dream is bigger than himself. Critic Casie E. Hermanson writes: â€Å"it is the attempt itself and the firm belief that he can achieve the impossible that makes Gatsby more than the sum of his reality† (Hermanson 78). Gatsby’s dream was more than his own reality. It was too big of a dream for him which is why he was not able to achieve it. After Gatsby’s was killed nick realizes that Gatsby’s dream of the East Egg was not all that it was set out to be.Nick says: â€Å"After Gatsby’s death the East was haunted for me like that, distorted beyond my eyes’ power of correction† (Fitzgerald 185). Nick later on in the novel realizes that Gatsby’s dream of the east was corrupt and it wasn’t as great as it was thought to be. Gatsby’s dream was not achieved, his dream killed him. Gatsby’s great American Dream was bigger than reality itself which is why it was not possible to achieve it. Fitzgerald uses lots of symbolism in his novel to get across the idea that the American Dream is not attainable. One of the symbolisms that Fitzgerald uses to symbolize the American Dream is Gatsby’s big mansion.Fitzgerald writes: â€Å"The one on my right was a colossal affair by any standard – it was a factual imitation of some Hotel de Ville in Normandy, with a tower on one side, spanking new under a thin beard of raw ivy, and a marble swimming pool, and more than forty acres of lawn and garden† (Fitzgerald 9). Gatsby’s mansion symbolizes that the American Dream causes p eople to spend money irresponsibly and to live selfish lives. Materialism seems to be everything people think they need to achieve the American Dream which is why it is not possible to achieve it.Fitzgerald also uses the Valley of Ashes to symbolize the American Dream not being possible to achieve. Fitzgerald writes: â€Å"This is the valley of ashes – a fantastic farm where ashes grow like wheat into ridges and hills and grotesque gardens, where ashes take the form of houses and chimneys and rising smoke[†¦]of men dimly and already crumbling through the powdery air† (Fitzgerald 27). Fitzgerald uses the Valley of Ashes to symbolize the result of everyone’s pursuit of the American Dream and their pursuit of wealth. It is filled with ashes like it’s been burnt out and is filthy.It represents societal decay and is basically a dumping ground for everyone who has failed at achieving the American Dream. In the novel Fitzgerald always describes Daisy with l ight like she’s angelic. Critic Casie E. Hermanson writes: â€Å"Daisy is dressed in white and associated with light and sunshine throughout the novel [†¦] Gatsby’s own devotion to her has a permanence that Daisy cannot live up to , yet Gatsby seems committed to an idea of Daisy that he has created rather than to the real woman she is† (Hermanson 77). Daisy is always bright and described with light in the novel, which symbolizes Gatsby’s image of her that he has created.In his mind she is angelic and perfect and bright. But she is not the woman he thinks she is. She is far from being an angel. The symbolism that Fitzgerald used in the novel shows that the American Dream does not lead to any success. Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby is based around the immorality of the characters and how the unrealistic American Dream causes it. Gatsby’s American Dream causes him and Daisy to act immorally. â€Å"As he left the room again she got up and went over to Gatsby and pulled his face down kissing him on the mouth† (Fitzgerald 122). Gatsby’s dream is Daisy, who is one of the most immoral characters in the novel.As soon as Tom, Daisy’s husband, leaves the room Daisy cheats on him by kissing Gatsby. Gatsby’s Great American Dream was causing Daisy to be immoral and cheat on her husband. The American Dream is only causing immorality in the characters’ lives because it is so unrealistic and unreachable to Gatsby. Gatsby needed wealth to achieve his dream, eventually Tom figures out how he really got his wealth. â€Å"I found out what your ‘drug stores’ were. [†¦] He and this Wolfshiem bought up a lot of side-street drug stores here and in Chicago and sold grain alcohol over the counter [†¦] I picked him a bootlegger the first time I saw him†(Fitzgerald 139).Gatsby’s only way of achieving his dream and winning back Daisy’s love is by becoming wealt hy, so he became a bootlegger. Which is why Daisy chose Tom instead of Gatsby, it was a safer pick. Gatsby’s American Dream was so unrealistic and bigger than himself that he had to resort to immoral crime to try and achieve it. Not only does Gatsby create his own American Dream, but he recreates his whole past with lies to make his dream attainable. While Nick, the narrator of the novel, was getting to know Gatsby he caught him in his own lies when Gatsby told him that it took him three years to earn the money for his mansion. I thought you inherited your money†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ I did old sport [†¦] but I lost most of it in the big [†¦] panic of the war. † (Fitzgerald 95). Nick was surprised when Gatsby claimed that he earned the money to buy his house because Gatsby had preciously told Nick that he lived off of the money he inherited from family. Gatsby’s American Dream is not only causing him to commit crimes and try and steal a married woman from her husband, it also causes him to live a lie and make everyone around him believe his lie of a life.The American Dream is causing all of this immorality because it is not realistic and it is nothing more than a fantasy. Fitzgerald’s, The Great Gatsby, indicates through its characters and their behaviors and through the symbolism in the novel that the American Dream is unrealistic and cannot be achieved. From Gatsby’s unrealistic, bigger than himself image of the dream and the crimes and lies that he goes through to attempt to achieve the dream and from the immorality and the other characters actions it is indicated that the American Dream is nothing but a dream.It cannot be achieved especially not with the unrealistic images that Gatsby and some of the other characters create in their minds about the dream. The topic of the American Dream is still important in the real world because it sets a goal. Although sometimes the goal for people to work hard for. It gives peop le a purpose or something to dream of and try and work hard to achieve. Of course it is sometimes highly unlikely that a person will achieve the dream but it gives a sense of hope or something to look forward to.

Louis XVI-France Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Louis XVI-France - Essay Example His mother too died of the same illness, and Louis and his siblings were left as orphans. At this time Louis XVI was only 13 years old, and he was oldest among his siblings. The children were taken by their grandmother following the death of their parents, but the grandmother died one year later. As a child, Louis Augustus wasn’t prepared to become the king of France and, although, he was a good student especially in sciences, he was, however, shy, disorganised and irresponsible, and his main interests were hunting and making locks (Louis XVI Biography). At the age of 15 in 1770, Louis Augustus married Marie Antoinette, the daughter of Empress Maria Therese of Austria. This was a strategic political move. On June 11, 1775, following the death of his grandfather, King Louis XVI, Louis Augustus ascended to power and he became King Louis XVI. Louis XVI became the king of France when the country was in economic and military crisis. The military was inefficient and the economy was in turmoil. And immediately upon becoming the king of France, King Louis XVI began a radical programme of reforms in both economy and military. And, although, King Louis XVI had many failings and was eventually ousted from power and executed, he, however, had many accomplishments in his reign. The following are the achievements of King Louis XVI of France. ... The French troops did excellently in the war and this led to the independence of USA when the British troops gave up on the war. In the war, the French expedition also managed to capture the Island of Tobago. Still on foreign policies, King Louis sought to curtail French influence in India. And to do achieve this goal, he joined the Maratha Empire and took the side of Mysore in the Anglo-Mysore war. This move strengthened the Mysore side and led to the defeat of Britain. This led to the weakening of the British influence in India and the subsequent strengthening of the French influence in the region. On the human rights, King Louis was a great champion of human rights. On assuming power as the king of France, one of his quick reforms was to flee to freedom the prisoners of state who had been imprisoned for political and other illegitimate reasons. He also reformed the penal code and abolished the use of torture in punishing the offenders (Grimshaw, 249). Death penalty, also, was abol ished in the penal code reforms. King Louis also achieved immensely in improving the economy of France, and this move made him so popular to the people. To improve the economy of France, the King, through his able minister in charge of economy, Turgot, introduced the right economic policies, and this led to improvement of the economy. The improvement of the economy led to reduction in prices of basic food stuffs such as the price of flour and bread (Louis XVI Biography, online). One of the economic policies that helped to improve the economy o France under King Louis XVI was the equal taxation of all the subjects of France. Prior to this

China Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

China - Assignment Example My father’s name is Hsin Ta, and he was always happy to be associated with his name. My father was rooted in our religion, and he ensured that he prayed for my mother, especially when she had complications during pregnancy. The survival of my mother and I made my father believe god was on our side, and that is why they gave me the name Aisha (Mulets 2). As I grow up, I came to learn that the house I grew up in has been in existence from one generation to another. It is the house where my mother was brought up in. I learned to be contented with what we had. The house was tiny with a few bedrooms which could only accommodate our family. Our house occupied the last position on our street. As I grew up, I shared a room with my big sister. She is a peaceable person, hence no quarrels arose between us. She made sure that we lived in peace with my brothers and acted as a mediator when fights arose between us. Her name clearly gives a representation of her peaceable character. Today being my birthday, I looked back over the past last year and much has changed. After I was born, my mother discovered that she was pregnant. My parents wanted to have a big family although they were not financially stable. However, our parents ensured that they did all what they could to support us. When we learned that we would have a newborn in our family, we were all excited. Unfortunately, my mother and the baby in the womb did not survive. My sibling died of HIV/ AIDs with my mother. It was a tough experience that happened to me in my life. My mother’s death made life tougher. My father had to take up two tasks, working to provide for his family and taking care of us. Before, my mother had the role of taking cares about us while my father was the bread winner. It was a difficult task for my father to take care of us. As a result, my grandmother moved in with us to

An analysis of three women from three works by edith wharton Essay

An analysis of three women from three works by edith wharton - Essay Example Her works display her inborn wit and are characterized for their humor, incisiveness and uneventfulness (Wikipedia). As a child, Wharton lived overseas until the age of six when her family settled in New York. She was not formally schooled, but she educated herself by receiving instruction from her governess and by reading through her father's collection of books (Dwight and Winner). In 1885, aged 23, she married Edward Robbins Wharton, but the marriage was tumultuous and unhappy. The marriage ended in divorce in 1913, on grounds of her husband's public infidelity and degrading health. Wharton's first work published, The Decoration of Houses, is not a work of fiction, but a work on architecture and landscaping. In the course of her life, Wharton has traveled extensively through Continental Europe, eventually settling in France. From France, she observed the battles of World War I from the frontlines and wrote Fighting France: From Dunkerque to Belfort, a series of articles about the fighting. She was involved actively in the Red Cross and with the refugees, and was given the French Legion of Honor award for her efforts. In a writing career spanning forty years, Wharton would produce more than forty volumes of work. Her first work published, The Decoration of Houses, is not a work of fiction, but a book on architecture and landscaping. ... r work, responding particularly to the elegance and precision of her prose and the sharpness of her wit; others don't like her at all, finding it hard to "get into" her fiction because she seems so cold, the prose seems so detailed and self-conscious, and the subject matter is so elite" ("Edith Wharton"). Said Dwight and Winner, Edith Wharton "was a born storyteller, whose novels are justly celebrated for their vivid settings, satiric wit, ironic style, and moral seriousness," whose works contain characters are "[o]ften portrayed as tragic victims of cruel social conventions, they are trapped in bad relationships or confining circumstances." The three works chosen for this paper, The Other Two, The Muse's Tragedy and The Pomegranate Seed, are works of Wharton that provide examples to this statement. One such character trapped by conventions is Mrs. Alice Waythorn from The Other Two. The story is told from the point of view by Alice's third husband Mr. Waythorn, whose glowing fascination for his charming bride then turned to doubt about her personality and the fact that she was married twice before him. It is a doubt that grew each time he encountered her former husbands, to wane into numbness with familiarity with them, and to be resolved in the most humorous and unexpected of turns. The Muse's Tragedy, aptly named, is the story of a woman named Mary Anerton, who was seen by the society she moves in as the muse of the renowned poet Vincent Rendle, and immortalized in his "Sonnets to Silvia." While the public whispered of the great love affair between poet and muse, which lent fame - and after the poet's death, authority on his works - to Mrs. Anerton, the truth is that the love affair existed only in Mrs. Anerton's mind, the fruit of her unspoken longing for the

Conflict Scenario Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Conflict Scenario - Assignment Example On the other hand, Bryan clearly falls under a different type and finds it hard to accept Jane’s personality. On handling the conflict, Jane is assertive in her use of the competition mode. Although she is very experienced, she has little qualification, no technology know-how and feels threatened of being replaced and made redundant by more qualified, junior staffs like Brandon, to the extend of using her rank to justify her actions. It does not help that Brandon is well-liked by their boss. Likewise, Brandon is also assertive in his use of the competitive mode. To avoid conflict, both employees should cooperate using the collaboration mode as this offers a win-win situation for a long-term benefit. This mode offers effective cooperation from both sides by meeting the needs of each other and acknowledges everyone’s importance to the organization. As the supervisor, approaching both Jane and Brandon to discuss the situation is necessary. In addition, their roles should be set out properly to provide a clear distinction of each other’s task to avoid further conflict and misunderstanding. When tackling conflict, it is better to use emotional intelligence in resolving the

Finances Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Finances - Essay Example These subsidiary companies are engaged in a wide range of business activities. The main ones are primary insurance and reinsurance business. Over the years it has acquired a myriad of subsidiaries engaged in diverse business operations like utilities and energy (MidAmerican Energy Holdings Company), manufacturing-service-retailing (Marmon group), wholesale distribution & logistics (McLane), jewelry (Ben Bridge Chain), carpets (Shaw Industries), bricks & boots (Justin Industries). The insurance (both primary and reinsurance) business is through more than sixty national and overseas enterprises. Berkshire being primarily in insurance business in effect means that the premium for undertaking risk generates cash which is available for investment when the opportunity knocks. The reputation of Mr. Buffet has been built over the years is due to the fact that he has been consistent in picking winning opportunities by and large. This translates into the fact that almost of the business acquisitions turn out to be profit making ones, which in turn swell the coffers of Berkshire to be ready to invest. Contrary to expectations and common belief, Berkshire does not invest by only trading in stock i.e., picking stock at low price and selling, but also by investing in the businesses and earning through their operations. â€Å"For some sellers Berkshire is a refuge, a place to land when, say, some members of a family that controls a private company want cash and others wish to keep running the business. To the latter Buffett promises independence and respect and then--barring some irreconcilable problem that just has to be dealt with--delivers on the commitment. "We dont have any MBAs running around telling these people what to do," Buffett says. "And God knows I wouldnt know what to tell them." To public companies that may also have a family reason for selling, or that just want to escape the cold world of regrettable stock prices, unrealistic quarterly demands, and

Strategic Diagnosis Project of the General Electric Company Research Paper

Strategic Diagnosis Project of the General Electric Company - Research Paper Example This essay stresses that GE aviation caters to commercial as well as military aircraft producers. Their exemplary research and development enables them to manufacture specialized engines for marine applications. GE aviation has a well established research set up, the research work carried out at GE’s research labs are the main reason for their latest and successful aircraft engine designs. GE aviation also provides services like engine exchange, on board service for aircrafts and technology up gradation. The engine exchange service of GE provides innovative solution for delivering the overhaul needs. In this service programme GE replaces the old engines of the aircraft with an overhauled engine. This service helps commercial and military aircraft operators in acquiring a fully functioning engine while their engine is removed for maintenance purpose. This paper makes a conclusion that the On wing support service of GE provides value added repair facility for customers at anyplace and at any time. This helps the aircraft operators to lower their operational cost and maximize their profit. GE aviation also offers various upgraded technologies for the aircraft running in old engines. This service provides the aircraft operators a cost effective way of upgrading their engines without incurring the cost of new engine. These up gradation are provided in customized packages to address each client requirement specifically.

Information and Communication Technologies (Icts) In University Essay

Information and Communication Technologies (Icts) In University - Essay Example This essay stresses that traditional approaches that were initially used in education involved actual classes, actual lectures and the use of individually written notes as opposed to the softcopy notes currently available. Information and communication technology has enhanced the educational discourse and learning process in the world in a number of ways that the traditional approaches did not. This paper makes a conclusion that the change in educational pedagogy due to the introduction of information technology enabled approaches has created significant impacts and enhanced learning in universities across the globe. With the use of technology, university students have today been granted a number of advantages that others did not have several years ago. The traditional educational environment was not well suited to address the emerging and dynamic educational needs of the students and this affected the level of academic growth and maturity. Graduates who were previously exposed to the traditional pedagogical educational instruction at university level have continued to face challenges with the information technology enabled work environment. While traditional pedagogical methods educational approaches used printed books and publication for education purposes, the introduction of ICT has diversified sources of information for students. Tools such as e-learning, e-books and o nline journals have enabled students and lecturers to access information with ease.

Play Therapy Essay Example for Free

Play Therapy Essay Sometimes children go through difficult passages in their lives. It therefore becomes prudent to provide them with effective ways of helping them ease through these passages. Infact, children are good teachers and they know what they want and what is right for them (Kottman, 1993). All they need is just space to do it. Play therefore becomes very important in releasing these pent-up emotions, feelings of anxiety, fear disappointment, aggression and insecurity (Chethik, Morton. 2000). This brings us to the issue of play therapy. What is play therapy? Play therapy refers to a method of psychotherapy with children in which a child’s fantasies and symbolic meanings of his/her play are used as a medium for understanding and communication with him/her (Landreth, 2002). Through this method, the child is helped to control his/her emotions, thoughts, wishes and needs using games, toys and mediums such as clay, drawings and paint. By doing so, the child is helped to understand the muddled feelings and upsetting events that he/she has not had a chance or skill to sort out properly. Thus through this symbolic representation, the child gains a sense of control over events that in reality, seem uncontrollable. Unlike in adult therapy where one has to explain what is troubling him, children use play to communicate at their own level and pace without any feeling of interrogation or threat using toys as their words and play as their language (Landreth, 2002). Rationale for play therapy In play therapy, the symbolic of function play is vital in providing children with a means of expressing their inner world. This use of play therapy is rooted on a development understanding of children. According to Piaget (1962), children at the pre-operational stage (2-7 yrs) are acquiring language in which symbols represent mental objects. A child’s play in this stage becomes increasingly imaginary and fantasy-driven. The child is internally improving his/her understanding and knowledge but lacks the external ability to communicate this enhanced way of processing within the world. Play thus becomes the medium through which the child communicates this internal awareness of self to others. Piaget further asserts that during the concrete operational state (8-11 yrs) the child grows in his/her personal ability to reason logically and organize thoughts coherently. He/she is unable to express certain complicated emotions such as resentment or guilt due to the need for abstract thought to understand them. Play then helps the child bridge the gap between concrete experience and abstract thought. Landreth (2002) identifies basic principles necessary in play therapy. These include that children’s natural language is play, that they have an inherent tendency towards growth and maturity and lastly, and are themselves capable of positive self-direction since they posses the capacity to act responsibly. Play is a natural language from which children express themselves (Landreth, 2002). And as stated earlier, developmentally, it bridges the gap between concrete experience and abstract thought. Children gain a sense of control through play and also learn coping skills (Chethik, Morton. 2000). At times, children also receive other types of treatment. Children for instance that are unable to control their attention impulses, have a tendency to react violently, or experience severe anxiety would be included in play therapy. The therapy addresses the child’s psychological symptoms (Chethik, Morton. 2000). The child will also receive play therapy to alleviate low self-esteem feelings, excessive worry, incompetence and helplessness (Chethik, Morton. 000). In play therapy, toys are viewed as the child’s words and play as the child’s language – a language of activity. Play is then to children what psychotherapy is to adults. The use of toys enables the child to transfer his anxieties, fears, fantasies from his own feelings and guilt to objects rather then people. Through this process, the safety of children from their own feelings is guaranteed because it enables them to distance themselves from those traumatic experiences. By acting out a frightening experience symbolically through play, or reversing the outcome in play activity, the child moves towards an inner resolution and then he/she is able to cope with or adjust to problems (Axline, 1989). Through the play processes, the child is allowed to consider new possibilities not possible in reality thus greatly expanding the expression of self (Bratton. Et al. 2005). Also, within the safety of the play therapy experience, the child explores the unfamiliar and develops a knowing that is both experiential – feelings and cognitive. In a nutshell, the unfamiliar becomes familiar and the child expresses outwardly what takes place inwardly. Therefore, a major function of play in play therapy is the changing of what may be unmanageable in real life to a manageable situation via symbolic representation, through which the child is provided with opportunities for learning to cope (Axline, 1989). The process of play therapy The initial focus of therapy is in building a relationship between a child and the therapist. This relationship is what provides dynamic growth and healing for the child. It is therefore a very important tool because a child will readily express himself every time he/she feels respected and accepted. According to Landreth (1991), there are principles that should provide guidelines for establishment of a therapeutic relationship. Some of the guidelines include that the therapist is genuinely interested in the child. Also, the therapist experiences unqualified acceptance of the child and does not wish that the child were different in some way. He further creates a feeling of safety and permissiveness in the relationship so the child feels free to explore and express himself/herself totally. Landreth further asserts that the therapist should always be sensitive to the child’s feelings and gently reflect those feelings in a manner that encourages the child to develop self-understanding (Landreth, 2002). Additionally, the therapist should deeply believe in the child’s capacity to act responsibly and respect the child’s ability to solve personal problems and give him the opportunity to do so. He should also trust the child’s inner direction and to lead in all areas of relationship and avoid directing the child’s play. This therapist should appreciate the gradual nature of the therapeutic process in a slow manner, and finally he should establish only the therapeutic limits that help the child accept personal and appropriate responsibility. The primary objective of the process is not only to solve the problem but to help in the growth of the child. The therapist primarily meets with the child alone and arranges time to meet with parents separately or with the child depending with the situation. The structure of the sessions should be consistently maintained to provide a feeling of stability and safety for the child. In the session, the therapist uses specific techniques to assess how a child experiences his/her world and how he/she communicates and reacts to events and people in his/her own world. The child is led to become aware of what he/she is feeling and opportunities are given to express these feelings. Awareness is thus a very important aspect in play therapy because without it, change is not possible (Chethik, Morton. 2000). Throughout the therapy, the child is empowered and supported to learn more about who he/she thinks she/he is, to talk about things that are frightening or painful, to be self supportive as well as to experiment new behavior (Bratton. Et al. 2005). Since the child’s world is a world of action and activity, the therapy provides the therapist with an opportunity to enter the child’s world. The child lives out the past experience and related moments at the moment of play. Without the presence of play materials, the therapist could only talk with the child about aggressive behavior exhibited in the recent past. In play therapy however, whatever reason for referral, the therapist has the opportunity to experience and actively deal with that problem immediately. By so doing, the child plays out feelings by banging them to the surface, getting them out in the open, facing them and either abandoning them or learning to control them. Toys and materials Since toys and materials are part of this communicative process for children, careful attention must be given to their appropriate selection. The rule here is selection rather than accumulation. Please note that random assortment of acquired toys and materials often appear like junk rooms and they therefore doom the therapy process to failure. They should then be carefully selected for the contribution they make to accomplish the play objective and the extent to which they are consistent with the play therapy rationale. Some general guidelines to consider are that the tools should be durable and should communicate a message of â€Å"be yourself in playing† rather than â€Å"be careful. † They should provide children with a variety in choice of medium of expression. (Eliana, G. 1994). However, they need not be elaborate and above all they should not be complex. Remember that the first toys to be used were sticks. The tools should be age appropriately manageable so that the child will not be frustrated in his efforts to express himself/herself. No toy should require the child to seek the therapist’s help to manipulate. Landreth (1991) asserts that the toys and materials should facilitate establishment of a positive relationship with the child, testing of limits, exploration of real-life experiences, development of positive image, self-undertaking, expression of a wide range of feelings and opportunity to redirect behaviors unacceptable to others. These toys can be grouped into three basic classes viz; real-life toys such as a doll, a small cardboard box with rooms indicated by tape strips or felt pen markers, doll house furniture, pacifier and a small car. Secondly, there are those acting out or aggressive release toys such as handcuffs, toy guns, dart gun and toy soldiers, aggressive puppets, rubber knife and punching bags. Finally, there are toys for creative expression and emotional release such as crayons, newsprints, blue scissors, hand puppets, plain mask, and also sand trays. Setting limits in Play Therapy This is a very crucial part of this process. The structure of the therapeutic limits is what helps to make the experience a real life relationship (Eliana, G. 994). Limits in play therapy have advantages both practically and therapeutically since they preserve the therapeutic relationship; facilitate the child’s opportunities to learn self responsibility and self control. Provide the child with emotional security and physical safety and thus enabling the child to explore and express his/her inner emotional dimensions that perhaps have remained hidden in his/her other relationships (Axline, 1989). Boundaries are necessary here to provide predictability and thus the children are not allowed to do anything they want to do. The play therapy relationship has minimum limits (Eliana, G. 1994). Exploration is encouraged, messiness accepted and persistence is the guiding principle. Play therapy is a learning experience and thus limits are not set until they are needed. The limits are worded in such a way that the child is allowed to bring himself under control. Research and Results Play therapy is an approach based on well thought out, philosophically conceived, developmentally based and research supported approach to assisting children cope with and overcome the problems they experience in life (Bratton. Et al. 2005). It has therefore been demonstrated to be effective in a variety of children’s problems including, but not limited to, abuse and neglect, aggression and acting out, autism, fear and anxiety, grief, hospitalization, learning disabilities, chronic illnesses, withdrawn children and burn victims. In the case studies reported by Landreth, the views that play therapy requires a long-term commitment is totally unfounded. Conclusion Play therapy can thus help a child to become aware of his feelings and how those feelings manifest into his/ her behavior (Bratton. Et al. 2005). He/she learns to become better at regulating emotions and expressing them in constructive ways. This combination of skills may help a child to become more assertive, self confident and to have self respect and respect for others. He/she then get this assurance that he/she will be understood and accepted.

Technology and the Future of Pornography

Technology and the Future of Pornography Pornography and the Internet: A Healthy Marriage To say that pornography is a profitable industry is to terribly understate reality. Though it does not have it’s own NAICS ‘code’, estimates of the extent to which sex sells range from at least $1 billion to up to $50 billion dollars annually (Byers 2004, p. 6; Cronin Davenport 2001, p. 38; Davidson 2003, p. 92; Murray 2004, p. 9; Simpson 2003, p. 1). Clearly, the estimates are wide ranging, due in large part to the lack of formal reporting methods for such occupations as â€Å"prostitute† and â€Å"exotic dancer† while adult bookstores may, from an industry accounting perspective, may simply be viewed as a â€Å"bookstore†. In addition, it is important to note that the pornography pseudo-industry is not just a multi-billion dollar force, it is a growing industry. Market Overview The principal reason for its recent explosive growth is in many ways similar to reason for pornography’s first â€Å"boom†, the invention of the printing press. The press permitted wide scale distribution and subsequent access of not just Bibles and books but other ‘subjects of interest’ which allowed the public’s latent desires to be aroused. In more recent times, the internet represents the application of disruptive technology in that it is a form of distribution that, especially for pornography, presents additional advantages over the pornography of yesterday with regards to a distribution that is an order of magnitude larger than the press is capable (Davidson 2003, p. 91). Pornography that is online represents a significant portion of the broader category of pornography in general which also includes print, television and music media. This category in turn is part of an even larger segment of â€Å"sex† which further encompasses adult clu bs, escort services and other products and services that are estimated to contribute the almost half a trillion dollar global industry. Of this, though estimates are difficult due to the nature of the industry, analysts suggested in 1999 that between $2-2.5 billion is from online sources, a figure which constitutes perhaps  ½ of all online revenues (Cronin Davenport 2003, p. 38; Byers 2004, pp. 6-7, Thompson 2005, p. 32). Concurrent with the growth in revenue is the proliferation of a pornographic web content which witnessed an eightfold (8x) growth between 2001 and 2005 (Thompson 2005, p. 32). One net effect of this is an overall industry is that it is both an attractive industry with regards to margins yet is highly competitive and fragmented. In further consideration of the industry, the following analysis is presented: Strengths – Pornography is perhaps as recession-proof an industry as the funeral home business. The product is backed by a millennia of biological imperative and fueled by a never-ending thirst for satisfaction and pleasure. When enabled by ubiquitous internet technology, it is easier to access and this access breeds familiarity which in turn creates a creeping social acceptance. Weaknesses – Clearly pornography is not ‘embraced’ by society as a whole. While there is evidence that its consumption may lead to a host of social ills such as violence or exploitation of children, this industry faces a stigma greater than industries such as alcohol, tobacco, gambling or firearms. Opportunities – Though there are some signs that, in its current iteration, the industry is maturing (Cronin Davenport 2001, p. 45). Despite this, there should be little doubt that, â€Å"†¦the digital age is porn’s golden age† (Byers 2004, p.8). Additionally, the nature of both the industry and the technology presents a very low cost of entry to a trade for it seems there is an insatiable demand. Threats – Perhaps the greatest threat is simply negative stigma attached to pornography as being obscene, indecent, perverted, ‘dirty’ or other negative label. Though consumers are relatively assured of anonymity, there remains a fear of being discovered whether by one’s spouse, supervisor, congregation, neighbors or others. Worth mentioning is the threat of being â€Å"outlawed†. Though pornography functions under a broad interpretation of the US first amendment concerning free speech, illicit pornography still manages to flourish, especially in the age of the internet. Overall, though pornography may be a maturing industry, due in large part to the omnipresence of the internet, it is an evolving one due to the fact that 2/3 of Americans have internet access (Management Today 2005, p. 19: Thompson 2005, p. 32). Of this online activity in 2004, excluding pornography, the market for paid online content was almost $2 billion of which â€Å"personals and dating† and â€Å"entertainment lifestyles† construed approximately half (Thompson 2005, p. 32). This evolution is a consequence to the interest to facilitate the distribution anonymous, affordable and on-demand pornography. This broad distribution, while meeting an apparent pent-up consumer demand, has had the side effect of ‘decentralizing’ a formerly constrained industry. For example, whereas one previously had to venture to seedy locales that were, for the most part, geographically restricted to a certain area of town to partake of pornography, pornography is now virtuall y everywhere (Davidson 2003, p. 97). Subsequently, this decentralization has resulted in a broader acceptance manifested by both wider recognition of its existence and the ‘pushing back’ of the line of what constitutes socially acceptable â€Å"pornography†. For example, consider the 1995 release of music from convicted felon Snoop Doggy Dogg in which group and oral sex was ‘advocated’ (!). Prior to this controversial release, one might have thought that the fundamental laws of economics and the general sensibilities and tolerances of even youth would essentially squelch such ‘filth’ yet, to the surprise of many, the songs in questions hit the top of the charts and sold over 300,000 copies within weeks (Davidson 2003, p. 100). Clearly, such an example illustrates the slipping lines of what is tolerated, accepted and even embraced by society. Technology Enabled Pleasure Marketing With this degree of financial impact pornographers, regardless of perceived social virtues, there is a penultimate combination of marketing- and technology-savvy that is driven by the motivation of the obtaining just a piece of the fortunes that seemingly stand to be taken. Beginning with a virtually irresistible and attractive product, modern pornographers have been at the forefront of profitably e-commerce almost since the inception of the internet. Pornographers are widely regarded as the first and most profitable internet business models (Davidson 2003, pp. 191-192; Vinas 1996, p.11). Though they are marketing a highly desirable product, pornographers have both employed technology and been facilitated by the nature of the technology of the internet in a number of ways to enable their business. Key to facilitating online pornography are the following characteristic of e-commerce (Cronin Davenport 2001, pp. 36-37): Transparency – The internet as a consumptive product is truly â€Å"WYSWYG†, the compu-speak acronym for â€Å"what you see is what you get†. Immediacy – With the internet, one’s delay in gratification is limited solely by the size of one’s wallet (or purse), the bandwidth of connection and the speed at which one can click. Disintermediation – Clearly, the internet is a medium which readily lends itself to a direct-to-consumer business model in which profit-taking, cost-increasing middlemen are eliminated. Price Competition – A key aspect of the ability of the internet to facilitate comparable prices for comparable products is the speed and availability of consumers to ‘price shop’ and vote with their financial patronage for the product which grants them the greatest utility. Convenience – 24/7. No clerks. No â€Å"Closed† signs†¦. And you never have to even get dressed and leave the house. Accessibility – The internet in not only in your home, it is also in your office (a fact that has been the bane of some), it is on the road and if you do not own a computer, you can likely borrow a public access terminal at the local library. Modularity – A consumer is not forced to ‘one-top shop’ – they can fulfill one fetish of their pastiche identity at one site and another at a different site†¦. Something for everyone, or rather, everything for almost anyone. Low Switching Costs – There is little â€Å"lock-in† through contracts or any other means. A consumer can, with little or no direct or indirect cost incursion, switch from â€Å"this-is-my-fantasy† to â€Å"that-is-my-fantasy†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ they can even likely have both, maybe, bandwidth permitting, simultaneously. Impersonality – This factor is one of the most salient in that, within reason, anonymity is relatively assured. For ‘respectable’ persons to be able to acquire smut desires of their heart without having to risk discovery is likely a key driver of the how technology is driving the financial success of pornography. Similar to the nine factors above, other theorists similarly summarize the key drivers of the proliferate success of online pornography such as Cooper’s ‘Triple A Engine’ in which access, affordability and anonymity come together for tremendous synergy (Byers 2004, p. 1). An additional factor that is present in online pornography is found in the very nature of internet technology itself: the ability to gather, analyze and act upon actual consumptive data (Davidson 2003, p. 181). Pornographers are perhaps among the world’s greatest marketeers in their ability to mine data and utilize this information to drive additional sales or, as one report puts it, charge and collect a fee for the customer to have the opportunity to spend even more money (Weber 1997, A1).. Thorns of E-Commerce Though surfing the internet is perhaps functionally anonymous, there are nonetheless bits and pieces of data left behind of which many cases are involuntarily and unknowing. For example, if a certain user, identifiable initially by a specific IP address visits one certain site, porn marketeers make use of computer algorithms to predict additional sites of interest which are then presented as pop-ups or other intrusive internet marketing techniques. For consumers who voluntarily submit information such as might be utilized for â€Å"club†-access, the pornographer has access to even more information in addition to information gleaned from recurrent visits such as which web pages were viewed, etc. As technology has enable pornography, pornographers have quite likely made full use of this technology using, at best, ethically questionable marketing tactics. Such tactics are designed redirect unsuspecting internet surfers to either an explicit web site or to a gateway to one. Once there, pornographers often make it very difficult to leave yet very easy, i.e., automatic, to come back. While it is an accepted retailer strategy to take such steps as utilizing larger shopping carts, positioning commodities such as milk or toilet paper at the back of a store, and to utilized free samples, pornography-in-general has a reputation for ‘virtually’ kidnapping browsers through hiding or re-tasking exit buttons, unrequested software downloads, resetting home pages and other techniques designed to direct consumers to their sites, entice them with their wares and keep them there longer than they might want to stay (Murray 2004, pp. 63-67). The increasing proliferation and acceptance of pornography represents a significant market force for marketeers as this force works ‘both ways’. That is, as pornography gains a larger market, the ‘pie’ grows in size while, consequently, what was taboo becomes more normalized, pornographers must become increasing creative in pushing the envelope. The downside for pornographic producers is that they are fundamentally limited by a fixed number of body orifices and the arriving at some new form of ‘sex’ would seem to be a finite proposition. This dual-natured dilemma is also represented in the efforts of some in society to squelch or at least, contain pornography by the proposal of a â€Å".xxx† internet domain designation for ‘x-rated’ sites. On one side, such a device would make it easier to filter out unwanted pornography yet it requires compliance from both the pornographic industry and a desire for compliance on behalf of the consumer. Additionally, in the event that such a requirement was enacted, it would serve the ‘undesirable’ purpose of legitimatizing an industry that many would just as soon pretend did not exist. Finally, such an action might have the ‘net’ effect of essentially doubling the available cyber-shelf space of pornography as marketeers could simply operation two identical sites (one site with two IP addresses) (Trueman 2005, p. 12a). As pornographers gain financially, they do not do so in isolation. In addition to generating revenue from targeted ad placements in pornographic media, other firms profit directly from its success and distribution. For example, payment intermediaries such as Visa, Mastercard, PayPal and similar firms capture a fixed percentage of every ‘dirty’ dollar and, as was indicated previously, there are ‘many-billion’ of them. Despite the massive financial gain, credit card firms may be under pressure from groups that would prefer pornography not to exist (Lubove 2003). Regardless of the hassles that the credit card oligopolies seek to impose, the sheer financial impetus of the industry is assurance that the mother of invention, if needed, will create a solution that will deliver the goods to lonely, demanding consumers. The Future of Pornography Regardless of one’s love or hate of pornography, it is the nature of fallen man to seek pleasure and avoid pain. It is the nature of the capitalism to meet the needs of any market with funds sufficient to cover the costs. Thus, the question is not whether pornography will exist, rather, the question is what will it look like and how will it be delivered? Currently, the continuing emergence of broadband and multimedia applications is fueling the growth of mobile telecommunications equipment. This segment resulted in over $600M revenue in Europe in 2003 and is projected to grow 5x in less than three years to over $3 billion (Booth 2003, p. 17). With regards to the current version of online pornography, there is likely to be either increased regulation of marketing practices or the growth of third-party software providers to block aggressive attempts and the pornographers’ online version of the telecommunications industry’s ‘slamming’ practices. As cyber space becomes more crowded and competitive with seemingly indistinguishable offerings, more traditional marketing strategies such as ‘adding value’, emphasizing communities and clubs and niche marketing will be more extensively utilized. In addition, due to the social stigma associated with not only pornography but advertising it as well, marketeers will likely focus on programs that are subtle, suggestive and semiotic (rather than ‘in-your-face’). In addition, the continued integration of technology is likely to be a coming event. Mobile phone internet browsers that make computing at home, at the office or on the go a nea rly seamless digital environment in which you can be with either stored or streamed content of your choice anywhere. Finally, it would seem as the next step of the industry and the ultimate future of online pornography will complete virtual sex experiences in which there is participation as well as sights, sounds and sensation. Though â€Å"teledildonics† is a well-explored concept, there are no commercially available products currently available (Balderson Mitchell 2001). Regardless, the arrival in the homes of technology that currently exists with remote surgery apparatus will herald a new techno-sexual renaissance which, as history has witnessed, pornography will eagerly adopt. Works Consulted Author Unknown. (2005, December). Management Today, p. 19. Balderson, M., and Mitchell, T. (2001). â€Å"Virtual Vaginas and Pentium Penises A Critical Study of Teledildonics and Digital S(t)imulation†. http://www.georgetown.edu/users/baldersm/essays/teledildonics.pdf. Accessed February 3, 2006. Booth, N. (2003, November). â€Å"More Bang for Your Buck†. Total Telecom Magazine, p. 17. Byers, L. (2004, April). â€Å"Pornography and the Internet†. University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada (MA Thesis). Cronin, B., and Davenport, E. (2001). â€Å"E-Rogenous Zones: Positioning Pornography in the Digital Economy†. The Information Society, (17), pp. 33-48. Davidson, D. (2003). Selling Sin: The Marketing of Socially Unacceptable Products, 2nd edition. Praeger: Westport, Connecticut. Lubove, S. (2005, March 1). â€Å"Visa’s Porn Crackdown†. http://www.forbes.com/2003/05/01/cz_sl_0501porn_print.html. Murray, B. (2004). Defending the Brand: Aggressive Strategies for Protecting Your Brand in the Online Area. American Management Assocication: New York, New York. Simpson, N. (2003, Fall). â€Å"The Money Shot: How the Porn Business Resurrected the Studio System†. University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada (MA Thesis). Thompson, M. (2005, August). â€Å"Online Recreation†. Technology Review, p. 32. Trueman, P. (2005, September 15). â€Å".XXX Would Legitimatize Porn†. USA Today, p. 12a. Vinas, T. (1998, September 21). â€Å"X-Rated and on the A-List†. IndustryWeek, pp. 11-12. Weber, T. (1997, May 20). â€Å"The X-Files: For those who scoff at internet commerce, here’s a hot market Raking in millions, sex sites use old-fashioned porn and cutting edge tech Lessons from the Mainstream†. The Wall Street Journal (Eastern Edition), p. A1. New York, New York.